Authors have cited ‘crisis’ alongside ‘protest’ masculinities and emasculation as drivers in such groups, a common factor being a reassertion of male power in the face of changing gender norms.57 Extremism discourses are constructed on the basis of such assertions and this is recognized by some as problematic. For research purposes, I am looking for good quality images of faces of males and females which vary in masculinity and femininity. But masculinity isn’t just a part of this system; it is this system. The broader demographic of working-class British voices, whether they are white or people from ethnic minority groups,11 is infrequently represented in academic literature, and often misrepresented in the mainstream.12 In the contemporary UK context, both Bailey and Pilkington emphasize the need to avoid a normative approach which either homogenizes or condemns the experiences of those who hold ‘radical’ political positions.13 Views of those in ‘extreme’ but ‘marginalized’ groups (some might argue, self-marginalized) are frequently judged against a white middle-class liberalism and regarded as exceptional, rather than as a manifestation of wider social discourse. I wouldn't. Zalewski, ‘Introduction’; Jane L. Parpart and Marysia Zalewski, ‘Introduction: rethinking the man question’, in Jane L. Parpart and Marysia Zalewski, Rethinking the man question: sex, gender and violence in International Relations (London and New York: Zed, 2008). The football stand is an important affective resource as one of the few spaces in which men can actively show emotions including love, sadness, anger, grief and care, and the EDL consciously reproduced this.91. Pietro Castelli Gattinara, Research overview of far right narratives (Radicalisation Awareness Network Publication, 2016), p. 3. Easy! Being a man, to me, means embracing the qualities of life that help me to help other's and create a better world for humanity. I am first year student in sociology and the time has come up to start thinking about essay topics. Second, through analysis of ‘close-up’ research with EDL activists, I explore two possible ways to enact instead the promise of the man question: one is to disrupt the idea of ‘toxicity’ as distinct from patriarchy, and recognize EDL masculinities as belonging to a repertoire of wider social norms; another is to disrupt the necessary link between men's bodies and masculinities. He told me he wouldn't want his kids at an event like this. In an inversion of Coomaraswamy's suggestion that ‘during war [women's] purity is deliberately assaulted precisely because it strikes at the core of ethnic identity’,72 participants reproduce cases of the mass sexual exploitation of ‘their’ women in ‘grooming’ cases as evidence of a culture war against them.73. Parpart and Zalewski, ‘Introduction: rethinking the man question’, pp. In particular, her work cautions that while masculinity is attached to the bodies and practices of men, it is not something that exclusively belongs to men.115 It is possible to see masculinities in the practices of women; and it is possible to recognize that many of the so-called toxic practices of the extreme fringes are present in society more widely. “Gender” becomes reduced to either “women”, “men”, or “femininity”, “masculinity”; and crucially we lose sight of the productive power involved.’60 Current discussion leaves little room to see how masculinity is not simply a property of men's bodies (it is also about women), with particular men responsible for extremist masculinities; nor does it acknowledge the ways in which toxicity is produced, not in particular men because of who and what they are, but through a matrix of gendered relations produced in space and productive of that space. I also include transcript material representative of the politics of the movement researched, and therefore likely offensive to many. This discipline is defined broadly as the study of how boys' and men's psychology is influenced and shaped by both gender and sex, and encompasses the study of the social construction of gender, sex … ‘Daniel’ now regards retaliatory violence as one necessary aspect of competition for ‘ownership’ of the town that he feels should uncontestably be his. A research note’, Deviant Behavior 31: 3, 2010, pp. 2. … What is masculinity? In particular, we review the connection between masculinity and specific health problems that men experience including depression and suicide, violence victimization and perpetration, substance abuse, … The guidance urged practicing psychologists to recognize and question … Raewyn W. Connell and James W. Messerschmidt, ‘Hegemonic masculinity: rethinking the concept’, Gender and Society 19: 6, 2005, pp. 965–82; Pilkington, Loud and proud; Owen Jones, Chavs: the demonization of the working class (London: Verso, 2012); Selina Todd, The people: the rise and fall of the working class, 1910–2010 (London: John Murray, 2014). Returning to the Telford demonstration with which I began this article, the then EDL spokesman Crossland can be seen to invoke the right to self-expression in terms familiar to a marginalized male working-class demographic, and consistent with the culture and behaviour of his particular community. Third, Beasley suggests women are too absent from Connell's accounts of masculinity, which fails to recognize women's roles in either constituting masculinity or embodying it.51. 813–31. Wouldn't your message be more powerful without the offensive signs, the anti-Muslim rhetoric? It is the question Zalewski first posed some 20 years ago as an invitation to ‘question the unquestionable’ and ‘problematize the subjecthood of man’.5 Following feminist scholarship, this constituted an attempt to reposition the focus of study from female subjectivities, with the aim of raising the prominence of gender in International Relations (IR).6 It was about understanding not ‘women’, but power relations. What are the results of toxic masculinity? They saw themselves as ‘second-class citizens’ within a hierarchy of multiculturalism. 1498, 2010, pp. Browse Toxic masculinity news, research and analysis from The Conversation Toxic masculinity – News, Research and Analysis – The Conversation – page 1 Menu Close Stephanie Lawler, ‘Disgusted subjects: the making of middle-class identities’, Sociological Review 53: 3, 2005, p. 435. 358–66. Hel Gower suggested this act was representative of a misogyny within the movement as a whole. These complexities of masculinity, who can embody masculinities and the risks of this embodiment, are occluded by CVE repertoires and media discourses that can only associate masculinity in extremist movements with ‘toxic’ men. What exactly is toxic masculinity? [Q: What happened?] Kupers suggests toxic masculinity is ‘the constellation of socially regressive male traits that serve to foster domination, the devaluation of women, homophobia, and wanton violence’.36 This definition is clearly linked to men's bodies, and is embedded in notions of male deviance, violence and marginalization. Who the fuck is Allah!’ I catch sight of my respondent, who nods with a slight smile. Research paper on masculinity 6 (1992), p. According to the trio, all members of APA's Div. See for instance Julia Ebner, The rage: the vicious circle of Islamist and far-right extremism (London and New York: I. [Q: Do you think the guys were equally disgusting?] I step back. 1, 10. You're speaking out against the sexual exploitation of local girls, I say. to explore questions about gender dynamics, mentors are often well positioned to engage in conversa-tions about broadening perspec-tives on masculinity. This involved a certain hypocrisy. 3. Search for other works by this author on: © The Author(s) 2019. Essential Research Question: How does reinforcing toxic masculinity affect young men? ‘Daniel’ told me only one of his attackers was arrested and jailed. This confrontation with his race as ‘other’ was significant for ‘Daniel’ to his masculine identity. This piece reflects on Zalewski's relevance to the field of masculinities and the possibilities for deconstructing extremism, in order to emphasize her prescience. Gavin Bailey and Phil Edwards, ‘Rethinking “radicalisation”: microradicalisations and reciprocal radicalisation as an intertwined process’, Journal for Deradicalization, no. In the introduction to her 1998 book The ‘man’ question in International Relations, Zalewski explained why it was necessary to ask this question to ensure that men engaged with their own male power, and why men's hegemony should be problematized.118 There was little optimism in Zalewski's shift in the focus of feminist study from women to men. You become a face—a face who is known on the street, or you become a target. Marysia Zalewski, Feminist International Relations: exquisite corpse (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2013), pp. Yet public and policy discourse often reduce the complexity of masculinities within extremism to issues of crisis and toxicity. All examples of topics, summaries were provided by straight-A students. The field of masculinity studies has developed this initial question to a deep interrogation of the relationship between maleness and violence. If you need help writing your assignment, please use our research paper writing service and buy a paper on any topic at affordable price. Mary Louise Roberts, ‘Beyond “crisis” in understanding gender transformation’, Gender and History 28: 2, 2016, pp. If the answer is ‘toxicity’, where is the boundary between those aspects of masculine performance that are designated toxic, and those that constitute patriarchy, society-wide? In essence, it considered questions of agency and identity as enmeshed in those of structure, and it constituted a means of challenging the inertia of a field which had failed to see women adequately or engage with the question of gender as a core endeavour.20, The prescience of Zalewski's man question and the reframing of the gender perspective that it embodied soon became apparent. They referenced ‘coupling up’ as a feature of protest away-days, describing its effects within the group. Too often they are analysed only in order to be condemned—indeed, not to condemn can risk academic censure.14 I do not share the views of interviewees whose words I reproduce here. 119–28; Hilary Pilkington, Loud and proud: passion and politics in the English Defence League (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016); Johanna Esseveld and Ron Eyerman, ‘Which side are you on? Masculinus, male) is a complex of physical, mental, and behavioral features (secondary sexual characteristics), considered as the male (that is outwardly distinguish male from female or male from female animals). Kupers, ‘Toxic masculinity as a barrier to mental health treatment in prison’. ‘Daniel’ described a relationship of spatial proximity with, but existential distance from Muslim neighbours. Treadwell and Garland, ‘Masculinity, marginalization and violence’; David Goodhart, The road to somewhere: the populist revolt and the future of politics (London: Hurst, 2017), p.19. The relational property of masculinity is mobilized, not to further understanding of extremist violence, but to differentiate good from bad men; to rely on particular men to mitigate the failures and violences of patriarchy as a whole. ‘Daniel’ also used wider discourses on race, Islam and multiculturalism to frame his perception of a hierarchy of race, in which he believed he was a second-class citizen. The same point is theatrical metaphor further, masculinity is a performance, a set made by a Canadian research team in Recasting Steel Labour; of stage directions, a 'script' that men learn to perform. The EDL emerged in 2009 in Luton as an explicitly working-class street protest movement with a ‘single-issue’ focus: to oppose ‘global Islamification’.62 In particular, it was a response to poppy-burning protests by the Islamist preacher Anjem Choudary and other Al-Muhajiroun activists.63 Some authors regard the EDL and other radical right groups with an anti-Islam(ist) agenda as simply fascism repackaged.64 Feldman, for example, describes the EDL as ‘old wine in new bottles’, the ‘old racism’ of skin colour replaced with the ‘new cultural racism’ of faith.65 Gattinara also suggests that assertions of cultural ‘incompatibility’ merely represent a narrative turning-point from assertions of racial inferiority.66 Other authors suggest that the task of categorizing the EDL is more complex,67 given its inclusivity towards women, Jewish people, Sikhs and gay people, all of whom are framed as (fellow) ‘marginalized’ groups in need of particular protection from Islam.68 The EDL is also increasingly understood as part of a new wave of right-wing populism in Europe and the Americas focused on anti-immigration policies, particularly countering Islam.69, Women have constituted perhaps 30 per cent of activists.70 Busher, an ethnographer of the movement, notes that masculinity matters in the EDL, yet can often be reduced to pathologizing accounts, depicting men as ‘angry, white, damaged and vulnerable … seeking to protect their social status and reassert their compromised masculinity’.71 There is a ‘kernel of truth’ to this, he admits. Extremism is a sensitive issue, and I am aware of the risk of reproducing unpalatable and racist discourses, even as I seek to problematize them. They echoed a sentiment expressed by then-Prime Minister David Cameron, in a 2011 Munich conference speech, namely that multiculturalism had been responsible for a loss of British values and the emergence of (Islamist) radicalization.80 This shared nationalism meant research participants deeply resented state suggestions that the EDL was ‘extremist’ in the same way as groups such as Al-Muhajiroun, who support the introduction of shari'a law into the UK. 445–49; Stern and Zalewski, ‘Feminist fatigue(s)’. It is on these we should focus to understand violence, conflict and the production of extremism. Radhika Coomaraswamy, ‘A question of honour: women, ethnicity and armed conflict’, Third Minority Rights Lecture, Geneva, 1999, http://www.sacw.net/Wmov/RCoomaraswamyOnHonour.html. Terry A. Kupers, ‘Toxic masculinity as a barrier to mental health treatment in prison’, Journal of Clinical Psychology 61: 6, 2005, p. 714. The men go through them. Yet they perceived the state to have supported long-term change that had destroyed their communities, and supported a Muslim ‘other’ they regard as a gendered threat. Because previous research has neglected to focus solely on the issue of masculinity in Disney films, it is necessary to examine the construction of male gender stereotypes and masculinity therein. The pernicious effects of the term ‘toxic masculinity’ can be traced to its genesis within the psychological literature on masculinities,35 part of the broader literature of critical studies on men and masculinities (CSMM). In particular, aggressive hyper-masculinities were produced in space as part of a particular repertoire of behaviours, both continuous and contiguous with a broader community. Naaz Rashid, ‘Giving the silent majority a stronger voice? In order to defend it, he suffered an injury that he suggested was worse than anything he encountered in Iraq. The postmodern/poststructural turn in theory has led to a reappraisal of basic concepts in many fields of research … Diane Abbott, ‘Britain's crisis of masculinity’, Demos twentieth birthday lecture (London, 2013); David Lammy, ‘Islamists, gangs, the EDL—all target alienated young men’, Guardian, 24 May 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/may/24/islamists-gangs-edl-target-young-men; Joan Smith, Home grown: how domestic violence turns men into terrorists (London: riverrun, 2019); Joan Smith, ‘How toxic masculinity is tied to terrorism’, UnHerd, 16 May 2019, https://unherd.com/2019/05/how-toxic-masculinity-is-tied-to-terrorism/. Any inability to avoid victimization entailed emasculation. 2019.). 829–59; Rachel Jewkes, Robert Morrell, Jeff Hearn, Emma Lundqvist, David Blackbeard, Graham Lindegger, Michael Quayle, Yandisa Sikweyiya and Lucas Gottzén, ‘Hegemonic masculinity: combining theory and practice in gender interventions’, Culture, Health and Sexuality 17: sup2, 2015, pp. However, when particular men are regarded as the problem, the issue becomes not one of patriarchy, or society, but of agency in specific groups, and the responsibility for ‘fixing’ patriarchy is pushed onto them. Masculinity (singular) is not explored as a feature of gendered relations but essentialized in sex. Paul Kirby and Marsha Henry, ‘Rethinking masculinity and practices of violence in conflict settings’, International Feminist Journal of Politics 14: 4, 2012, pp. 1497–594. Pride, ownership, display? Chris Allen, ‘Why Theresa May is wrong to suggest that Islamophobia is a form of extremism’, HuffPost UK, 20 June 2017, http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/dr-chris-allen/islamophobia_b_17214242.html; Alan Travis, ‘May says Islamophobia is a form of extremism, marking shift in rhetoric’, Guardian, 19 June 2017, http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/jun/19/may-says-islamophobia-form-extremism-marking-shift-rhetoric. Zillah Eisenstein, Against empire: feminisms, racism and the West (London: Zed, 2004), p. 161. A conversation with 19-year-old ‘Iain’ was symptomatic. the work of the TellMAMA Team, ‘TellMAMA: about us’, 2018, https://tellmamauk.org/about-us/. 603–20; Raewyn W. Connell, ‘Globalisation, imperialism and masculinities’, in Michael S. Kimmel, Jeff R. Hearn and Robert W. Connell, eds, Handbook of studies on men and masculinities (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004), pp. Finally, Connell's structural approach ‘lets men off the hook’, Beasley suggests, by relegating male agency or identity in its account.52 In particular, for Connell, widespread violence—such as waves of Islamist resistance—has ‘crisis tendencies’.53 Here there is a risk of eliding the specificities of the local. The marchers are on the move now and chanting. This article asks, what are the effects of the toxic masculinity discourse in understanding the British radical right? A Muslim would make them.’111 Participants criticized a (monolithic) Islam for a traditionalist approach to gender; yet they also expressed a belief in the importance of ‘traditional’ gender roles as a legacy of ‘English’ culture. The thing is, he says, the lads are angry, their blood is up, and this is how we express ourselves. But only those cases involving men framed as Muslim. As Boesten notes, ‘Gender … and sexuality … help define and naturalize the hierarchies based on race and class.’75 Expectations of privilege are central to white identity. Reflections on methodological issues in the study of “distasteful” social movements’, in Mario Diani and Ron Eyerman, eds, Studying collective action (London: Sage, 1992), pp. Indeed, not just masculinity in an extreme group such as the EDL, but also ‘traditional’ white working-class masculinity is often talked of as ‘toxic’ or ‘in crisis’ or ‘subordinate’.113 To those who are not working class, working-class culture is often regarded as ‘a hurdle that needs to be overcome’.114 From the inside, however, aggressive masculine behaviours, rituals and practices that appear threatening to—or indeed threaten—others feel positive. The man should work.’ I suggested he criticized Islam because he believed it advocated precisely this approach to men and women, to which he replied: ‘[But] I would not make a woman stand in the kitchen and cook. This exploration suggests that the concept of toxic masculinity is inadequate to describe the gender practices of those involved in anti-Islam(ist) protest, and I advocate instead a return to the fundamentals of Zalewski's man question to elucidate the complexity of masculinities in this scene. Just as extremists are in reality not separate from society,116 toxic masculinity is not separate from patriarchy or social gender norms.117 Nor is it an adequate term to describe what may not always be ideological, but is certainly political, action from ‘underclass’ men, given its delegitimizing effects. They was disgusting. Masculinity is a concept built based on a set of characteristics and behaviors, which are generally considered to be … The field of masculinity studies has developed this initial question to a deep interrogation of the relationship between maleness and violence. Busher, The making of anti-Muslim protest, paras 51–2. Participants who had attended EDL demonstrations for some years distinguished between types of women, as well as between men and women. 117–48; Laura J. Shepherd, ‘Veiled references: constructions of gender in the Bush administration discourse on the attacks on Afghanistan post-9/11’, International Feminist Journal of Politics 8: 1, 2006, pp. He told me: ‘A woman should stay at home and cook and clean, that's the way I've been brought up. Just for the demos. Her work on the nature of gender, power and masculinity never loses sight of the relations between men and women. 176–7. Instead I adopted an empathetic approach as part of an ethnographic methodology, which asserts the necessity of recognizing the legitimacy of the participant viewpoint, even where the view itself crosses the cordon sanitaire of acceptability. for example: How does media creates masculinity? You can download the paper by clicking the button above. Women are active participants in the EDL and, as noted above, frequently ‘do’ the same masculinities as the men. Stephen M. Whitehead and Frank J. Barrett, ‘The sociology of masculinity’, in Whitehead and Barrett, eds, The masculinities reader, p. 15; Chris Beasley, Gender and sexuality: critical theories, critical thinkers (London and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005), p. 179. Many understood female bodies at events in binary terms: those who were honourable and those who were not. I despise them all, they are filth-bags. Maria Stern and Marysia Zalewski, ‘Feminist fatigue(s): reflections on feminism and familiar fables of militarisation’, Review of International Studies 35: 3, 2009, p. 615. He is in his twenties, an EDL activist and a veteran of Iraq, but it was in his home town, he said, that he experienced his worst injury: I was attacked by ten Muslims. Bruce Hoffman, Inside terrorism, 2nd rev. Michael Flood, ‘Between men and masculinity: an assessment of the term “masculinity” in recent scholarship on men’ in Sharyn Pearce and Vivienne Muller, eds, Manning the next millennium: studies in masculinities (Perth, Australia: Black Swan, 2002), cited in Beasley, ‘Rethinking hegemonic masculinity in a globalizing world’, p. 88. Some was old. Just for sex in hotels, things like that. Nigel Copsey, The English Defence League: challenging our country and our values of social inclusion, fairness and equality (London: Faith Matters, Nov. 2010), p. 29; Matthew Goodwin, The roots of extremism: the English Defence League and the counter-jihad challenge, briefing paper (London: Chatham House, 2013), p. 6, http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/public/Research/Europe/0313bp_goodwin.pdf; Treadwell and Garland, ‘Masculinity, marginalization and violence’, p. 621; Bartlett and Littler, Inside the EDL, p. 14; Pilkington, ‘“EDL angels stand beside their men … not behind them”’; Elizabeth Pearson, To what extent does gender matter in extremism in the UK?, PhD thesis (King's College London, 2018). Both male and female EDL participants believed a liberal feminism had failed to defend women from Muslim men, and prioritized Islam (read as monolithic and sexually regressive) above the rights of the working class (read as sexually progressive). Questions: 1. It has focused on a particular radical right movement, the EDL, to show how masculinities are revealed, and the material conditions in which they come into being, revealing the inadequacy of the toxic masculinity label to describe this activism. Nor is it to judge such demonstration as reasonable; it is, rather, to contextualize it. You have to become someone that people think, don't fuck with him, that's Darren … Then that reputation spreads and keeps you out of trouble for life.83. While I saw a small number of activists from ethnic minority groups at protests, I did not succeed in interviewing them. Eric Dunning, ‘Towards a sociological understanding of football hooliganism as a world phenomenon’, European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 8: 2, 2000, p. 151. Employment change and white working class youth (New York and Chichester: Wiley, 2011); Kimmel, ‘Globalization and its mal(e)contents’. 38–41; Raewyn W. Connell, Gender and power: society, the person and sexual politics (Cambridge: Polity, 1987). Skeggs, ‘The making of class and gender’, pp. While Reading the book Real Boys by Dr. William Pollack, I realized that our society is holding boys to contradictory standards aiding the problems that many of them face while in adolescence. HM Government, Counter-Extremism Strategy, policy paper, 19 Oct. 2015, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/counter-extremism-strategy. Helen Wilson and Annette Huntington, ‘Deviant (m)others: the construction of teenage motherhood in contemporary discourse’, Journal of Social Policy 35: 1, 2006, p. 69. See Bartlett and Littler, Inside the EDL; Pilkington, Loud and proud; Busher, The making of anti-Muslim protest. The marchers are flanked on all sides by more men, high-vis-clad police. Handrahan suggests that women's peace movements draw on ‘shared experiences that women have as women, mothers and wives subjected to violence’ and perhaps therefore reduce the ‘significance of ethnicity’ through strengthened gender identity.96 The women here do the opposite; their active appropriation of masculine norms, constructed through particular forms of race and class, draws further boundaries of faith, class and ethnicity between women. Documentation of the impacts of EDL racism is vitally important.15 This piece, however, is focused on EDL activists, following the methods of other authors investigating the far and radical right,16 and indeed moving away from the criminological norm of attempting to understand racial or religious hate crime through a ‘victimological perspective’, rather than engaging with the processes through which hate or racism is engendered.17. Bodies and masculinities 19: 5, 2016 ), p. 3 of feminists Pete! 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